What was your favorite topic this semester? Why?
Whatwas your least favorite?
What would you change about this class if you could?
What do you feel is your biggest accomplishment in biology this year?
My favorite topic was when we were learning about evolution but also when we were learning the different systems. It was something I knew a bit of because of anatomy and physiology. I thought that was interesting because the functions and processes inside the body is what really takes my interest.
My least favorite topic was biochem. chemistry really isn't a strong point. So it did not really click in my mind.
I would say to do a hands on dissection along with the students or to do a demonstration first so that the students have a general sense as to how to cut. However the process of learning was significant too. The online labs were a little hard to handle sometimes, but it would be nice for deadlines to be set for notebook just so that the process of procrastination does not reach its full extent.
My biggest accomplishment was dissections. It was interesting to connect and see how the actual subject compares to the diagrams. The size of each part was interesting to know as well.
Starfishes are known as echinoderms. It is a spiny skinned marine animal. They have a central point along with 5 or more arms. It is an echinoderm mainly because they do not have backbones. They have hard plates as spines as well. Echinoderms have tiny systems inside of their bodies much like these star fishes. They have tubefeet with suction pads. They evolve from animals with bilateral symmetry. They have mesodermal skeletons. the Larvae are ciliated. Their left side of the body tends to grow pentaradically symmetric fashion. It has an, " ambulacral" system in which fluid filled canals function.
Asteroidea is the class of echinoderms that starfish belong to. It has characteristics such as regeneration and mussel feedings. Crinoids area type of marine animal echinoderms which live in shallow water. They have a mouth on their surface along with many arms, which is a common characteristic amongst echinoderms. They have a U shaped gut and contain a five fold symmetry.
Arachnids:
- joint legged animals
- 8 legs
- two further pairs of appendages: adapted for feeding, defense, and sensory perception
- (pedipalps)
- (chelicerae)
- no antennae
- no wings
- two party body tamata : prosoma and opisthosoma
- carnivorous
Insects:
- 6 legs
- three part body: head thorax abdomen
- three pairs of jointed legs
- compound eyes
- two pairs of antennae
- hatches from eggs
- 800,00 different types
wings located on thorax
Annelids:
- phyla of segmented worms
- multiple segments
- blood circulation within blood vessels
- can produce asexually
-9000 known species.
- soft bodied
The test content was unexpected for some topics. Definitely believe that it would be best to go more in depth in topics of genetics as well as more review of ecology since it is a topic covered at the very beginning of the year. the biochemical portion should be gone over again just so that it would be easier to deal with. animal function and structure was definitely an interesting topic but maybe the functions or the processes could be gone over more thoroughly in terms of creating short cut ways to remember them.
The chapter starts off with the previous belief that, "until 1955, it was agreed that human beings had twenty- four pairs of chromosomes." (24) A group of scientists had even abandoned their experiments because of their findings of only twenty three chromosomes found in each cell. However it was in 1955, when this claim was disputed and many researchers so much as went back and had found 23 chromosomes in previously published photographs rather than the believed to be 24. In apes 24 chromosomes are found in each cell while 23 are found on the human cells. It also addresses the theory of evolution on humans and acknowledges that humans and apes are 98% alike. Evolution is believed to trend based off of natural selection. This fact occurring in that species tend to optimize the most out of their natural environment. The chapter also addresses monogamy and its role in helping the shape the new genration as such hunting and gathering tactics as well as emergence of, "sexual division of labor. " Species behavioral differences occur in the genese which do separate us from ape although we are are 98% alike. It is chromosome 2 that we are found to be most related in which religions believe that it is where the human soul is found to be the closest.
The chapter talks about how blood variations maybe play a part in the variations of mutations. Chromsome 9 determines various blood types. Blood grouping is considered to be, " the friend of the innocent." (136) The chapter talks about the ABO system which was first discovered in the 1900s. "A and B are 'co-dominant' versions of the same gene, O being 'the recessive' form of it" (137) The chapter also mentions malaria in which type O blood types are much more resistant than other blood types. They are also less likely to develop different variations of cancer. This is because its survival instinct had gone up enough to keep it from disappearing. The issue of disease and mutations linkage is also mentioned with the example of sickle cell anemia occurring in Africa. The frequency of this disease is believed to be in relation to malaria. In the sickle cell mutation, it is recalled that, "blood cells collapse in the absence of oxygen, [and] is frequently fatal to those with two copies of it." (141) Resistants to malaria is with those who have one copy.
"The brain is born with far too many connections between cells; many are lost as it develops." ( 231). This chapter mainly focuses on the topic of cancer and of how cells tend to replicate. One such case is with the mouse which have CED - 9. The genes fail to develop and the cells not needed, " commit mass suicide." (232) Cancer develops as a result in which cells tend to reproduce and reproduce again in which it results in, "dividing for a whole generation." ( 233) When the cell cannot be stopped in reproducing it self, it becomes cancer. It is believed to be an, "excessive growth of tissue" as well as , " a collection of diverse disorders induced by a multiplicity of causes." (233)It also comments on the importance of catching cancer early in that it may aid in the prevention of more reproducing cells which would result in mutation development. With this mutation accumulation, the diseases worsen with time. Later on the chapter begins to mention information regarding TP53.
Chromosome 16 is considered to be "genes that allow learning and memory". This chapter talks about how genomes extract, "useful information from the world by natural selection and embodies that information in it's design." ( 220). It talks about how the brain is the one to help with the body such as with supplies or in the realization of danger. The author brings up the issue of knowledge versus instinct. In that instinct is by genetics whereas knowledge must be acquired through experience. He suggests, " learning gradually gives way to instinct," in that in order to learn something we use instinct to make it easier to modify that knowledge into experience. Later he moves on to explore the topic of learning versus heritability. Eric Kandel, preformed a series of experiments in which to answer the question of what makes learning possible. He wanted to learn the mechanisms in which learning occurs and involved his focus on synapses between neurons. His experiments resulted in the discovery of cylic AMP in which its high activity in brain regions.
The chapter starts off talking about a five year old girl with Prader- WIlli syndrome. She shows symptoms such as being extremely obese with tiny hands and feet. It is a rare inherited disease in which children are born floppy and pale skinned. They refuse to feed off their mother's breast but later they eat as much as they can. People with this condition, tend to have small hands and feet as well as underdeveloped sex organs. They also suffer a case of being, "mildly mentally retarded."
They also mention another syndrome, Angelman's. It is when they are, " thin, hyperactive,insomniac, small headed, long jawed, and often stick their tongues out." In men, the inherited disease is carried out as Prader- Willi whereas in Women it is Angelman's.
It later moves on to point out that the gene also remember's history of its origin from the paternal and maternal instinct. In cell's where the gene is active, it often switches off between imprinted versions of the gene.
The chapter starts with the statement, " genes [are] far more complicated than it needs to be." It also says that chromosome 8 is the relatively neglected and least mapped chromosome. "Reverse transcriptase is a gene that serves no purpose at all "in that if it were removed from a human at the point of conception, it is more likely that it will not be damaged but will benefit. It also brings the idea that people are made up of viruses in which, " viral genome drop .. the virus's genes and keep just the reverse transcriptase gene." In that the reverse transcriptase is responsible for the replication of many genes, which then causes mutations in proper genes. Methlyation is the process that helps to freeze these mutations but is the first in the development of cancer. It also talks about DNA finger printing which has helped in the field of forensic science as well as others such as paternity.
The chapter of Chromosome 4 mentions pleiotropy and pluralism. It talks about how single genes do not affect a person's look but rather by other factors.The author comments on how the world is not as simple as one might think but is affected by many different factors such as fashion or nongenetic. A problem mentioned in the chapter involves "asthma," which has a direct involvement with allergies. The chapter talks about pollution and its affect on asthma and allergy. There is a theory that those whom stay away from germs and bacteria as a child are more likely to develop asthmatic systems. It is because another theory states that the bacteria found in dirt is found to trigger a part of the immune system. It also mentions why Asthma is believed to be a genetic disease in that histamines trigger the constriction of air ways which are released by mast cells.
Many people associate "instinct" with animals. It is because in chromosome 7 there is a gene that determines a person's automatic response in any given situation. Animals live upon these instincts to survive whereas humans improvise. The chapter also mentions how many languages have underlying similarities. Those similarities is what helps to create a universal language. However this realization brings up a great fact in which humans have many skills already acquired but do not act on it because they simply do not know that it has been there. According to chapter 6, the chromosome has been affected. Due to two genetic occurrences, it had seemed that instinct is not an acquired behavior.
The purpose of the Intelligence chapter is to note that environmental stimulus is important in the ability for intelligence genes to work. Scientist Robert Plommin preformed an experiment on a group of children in which they found IGF2R laying in the middle of the gene. Another experiment was preformed in which Thomas Bouchard, "collected pairs separated twins," and reunited them. In his experiment, he tested their personalities and discovered a connection between heritability, intelligence, and personality. In his studies, he also found that, "being in the same family has no discernible effect on IQ at all." He also concludes to reasoning that Twins are highly and similarly intelligent because of the womb in which they shared together. Chapter 6 calls upon the Nature and Nurture concept in which events occurring in the womb are the effect of many results when outside of the womb.
Conflict:
This chapter has a lot to say regarding the x and y chromosomes.
X and Y chromosomes are other wise known as sex chromosomes. These chromosomes very much determine the sex of the body. Each person starts out with a X chromosome from the parents. However if one Inherits a y chromosome from the father, they are a male. If one inherits a x chromosome from the father, they are a female. There are some rare cases such as when a female inherits both x and y chromosomes. This chapter also explains the occurrence of color blindness. Color blindness is much more commonly found in males. This is because men do not have a spare X chromosome. It is because these genes are found on the x chromosomes. Thus, lack of x chromosomes results in color blindness.
Sexually Antagonistic genes are also a big part of the chapter in which the determining of nature of the sex, was decided by genes rather than temperature. This in turn resulted in which the lack of this gene made people female. Eventually the genes called for specific inheritance for males and females. Females did not require the genes found in males, therefore it resulted in one sex
s advantage and the other's disadvantage. It is other wise known as Sexually Antagonistic Genes.
The BioChem Chapters really confused me. I really do not understand Chemistry and there fore i am confused with the chains and other chem related issues.
What topics do you feel very clear on?
I feel very clear on the ecology unit.
What lab/ activity was your favorite? Why?
My favorite lab was the virtual genetic fly lab because it was fun playing around with the chromosomes to see the affect that it would have on its offspring.
What lab/activity was your least favorite? Why?
I didn't like the egg osmosis lab because it was messy and i broke through the membrane.
If you could change something about the class to make it better, for instance the type of homework (not the amount) what would it be and why?
It would definitely be a lot easier if we had a list of all the homework assignments that must be done with enough time to do the homework. It is hard because sometimes people aren't aware of what chapter they should be on. And then the note book is suddenly due. But mainly, we need more notice of when the note book will be due.
The main concepts with the book have to do with Evolution, Mating, as well as Genetics. Through out the book, Weiner uses past experiments to get through the main concepts. The main one used specifically has to do with Flies. First off, evolution has to the species adaption and the changes made to the species over time. It is facilitated by mating as well as genetics in which each individual has traits specific to it. They have different chromosomes such as Females with YY and Males with XY. It relates to genetics especially to the fly genetics lab in which different traits can be combined to create an offspring entirely different from it's parents. The three concepts all intertwine with one another, not just in flies but in everything in nature. Without the transfer of different chromosomes and genetic traits, off spring would not be different. They would not migrate into other places or would not be able to survive to changing environments with out being helped by small adaptations. Without these changes, evolution would not occur in the long run to adjust and survive entirely to changes not just within the species but to nature,environments, as well as ecosystems.
The author comments on pheromones and the fears that humans have because of what the chemical can do. It is something so simple as "eight or ten carbon atoms in a chain... needed to generate precise..kinds of matter." It is ALL that's needed. It is ALL that's needed to so much as control an organism. The pheromones emit a chemical element which has the ability to arouse the opposite sex, alert a signal, organize members of a society, and find a specific person. Pheromones have can send messages and it can be seen as a "chemical attractant." The author comments on humans fears because it is something that can be used to easily manipulate another being. The author also mentions DNA fingerprinting which talks about how it has, "revolutionized not just forensic science but all other fields as well." It has helped out in paternity fields as well as influenced knowledge of bird song.
This chapter of the book has mainly to do with comparing human societies to that of organisms. Going back to a previous theory of the author, he points out that humans like to think of themselves as superior to other beings. It is to human belief," to [take] caution that insects are like creatures from another planet." It is to say that they are completely different compared to humans yet they are "perfectly tooled but crazy little machines." The point that author is trying to get across is that fact that these creatures," live two kinds of lives; they are individual... and they are at the same component parts." It is surprising to think that these creatures, "have a mind at all, much less a thought." And it is in these terms that society is compared to organisms. An organism has its own thought processes, functions, characteristics. It is something a society also has. It is in his example of the ant that helps the main concept become known in that it is agreeable to point out that individuals do not make a difference. They are alone and by themselves and their knowledge is not noticeable. However, when ants come together and they begin to cluster up, it is in that moment that one beings to realize that they do have a thought for themselves.
The main idea of Thoughts for a Count Down is mainly about how humans feels around anything different. Humans tend to associate "different" with disgusting. Humans have a tendency to go through extraordinary measures to "de -sanitize" themselves to avoid catching "cooties." One of the major examples first mentioned involves the man on the moon. After returning, the choreographed behavior astronauts practice as to not,"fall on their knees and kiss the carrier deck," because that would result in contamination. It is amazing that humans know absolutely nothing about anything thats regarded as different. It can not be known because they,"Cannot be cultivated alone." The author's point about interconnection is very agreeable in that association must occur in order for a process to be carried out. Humans have this belief that they are superior beings. They don't realize that everything in life and nature is interconnected. It is this belief that influences them to not care about anything that is supposedly different.
The author makes very explicit points in the article. In the very first line, it is agreeable to say that, "the trouble with Modern Man is that he has been trying to detach himself from nature." The observation is true in that modern man believes they are better than nature and even try take advantage of it. It is not "illusion to think that the is anything fragile about the life of the earth," because earth is fragile. Every action inflicted by modern man directly inflicts disturbance on the earth. I do disagree and believe it is irrational to say that mitochondria are not one with man. When in fact these little creatures work to perform the functions of man. Yes they are separate little ecosystems, however they come together to formulate one man. It all interconnects in which there is a domino effect. The body itself is an ecosystem and these "separate" organisms come to get together to work as one.
Cell fractionation is important for scientists to study the function of the major organelles.
Nucleoid is important because it holds the information of the prokaryotic cell including DNA.
cytoplasm holds alot of valuable abundance of membrane organelles with their specialized functions to the cell. Plasma membrane helps the cell by acting as a barrier which controls what goes in and out of the cell such as nutrients and wastes. Ribosomes are essential in the process of protein synthesis.
Smooth ER is important to the liver by detoxifying and its cytoplasmic surface lacks ribosomes.
The golgi apparatus is important because it modifies product of ER and sends them to specific locations.
Chloroplasts are important to the cell because it is the location by which photosynthesis takes place.
Cell wall is important to a plant cell because it protects the cell to prevent excessive water intake which could kill the cell. Transport proteins function by only allowing certain molecules pass through the membrane. Diffusion is when molecules transfer from an area of low concentration to an area of higher concentration. Chemiosmosis is when ATP and Transport proteins couple up as a forceful mechanism to facilitates its travels throughout the membrane.Passive transport is when these molecules move across the membrane. Active Transport allows for the movement of molecules across membrane by aid of expending metabolic energy because it has to go against the concentration gradient.Electron Transport chain helps in facilitating change of electron into oxygen by a multistep process.Chemiosmosis is important because it facilitates movement across a membrane by the allowance of coupling between ATP and transport proteins.Cellular respiration is a catabolic pathway in which oxygen is consumed as a reactant.
Metabolism is an important property of life that results from cell interaction with molecules. It controls energy usage of the cell.
Catabolic Pathways is the process that helps to release energy by breaking down complex molecules.
Anabolic Pathways is the process in which energy is consumed to build molecules.
Energy is the ability for a cell to do work.
Kinetic Energy is energy in motion.
Chemical Energy is energy stored in molecules.
Potential Energy is stored energy. Once in emotion it turns into kinetic energy.
first law of thermodynamics is the law in which energy can not be created nor destroyed. it is important because it means that everything requires energy.
free energy is energy available to do work.
ATP is important to the reactions because it is the main agent of which energy runs on. it helps the transfer of molecules throughout the cell and helps to facilitate reactions
catalyst helps to speed up reactions without being consumed it self as energy.
enzymes are catalytic proteins that helps chemical reactions
competitive inhibitors that block enzymes from speeding up reaction by blocking substrates.
noncompetitive inhibitors affects substrates by changing the shape of the enzyme which altars its productivity. substrate reactant enzymes use to speed up productivity of reaction by entering active sites.
Bryophytes are non vascular plants due to their lack of vascular tissue. It is also referred to as embryophytes. Some of the bryophytes do not have tisse necessary for the transport of water. Bryophytes are also determined to not be a natural group. They do not produce flower or seeds. Three lineages of Bryophytes are marchantiophyta, bryophyta and anthocerotophyta. Bryophytes lack necessary tissue compared to other plants such as lignin or branched sporophytes. They can aslo be dioicous or monoicous.
Pteridophytes contain xylem and phloem which classifies it as vascular plants. They do not produce flowers or seeds. This characteristic adds on to their classification as vascular cryptogams, which results in their reproduction and dispersion of spores. They consist of two groups; Lycopodiophyta and of Ferns. It also contains a freeliving gametophyte stage. In terms of the pteridophytes sexuality, there are two; dioicous and monoicous.
Gymnosperms are seed bearing plants. Conifers are the largest group of gymnosperms. It is believed that gymnosperms developed in the carboniferous period. Gymnosperms are crucial to economic use due to its use as lumber.( pine, fir, cedar) It has as short live. Its seeds are enclosed in an ovule. They are non flowering seed plants. Gymnosperms means, "naked seed."
Angiosperm are also known as flowering plants. They are seed producing plants. They are different than gymnosperms due to characters such s flowers and endosperm within seeds. There are eight groups of angiosperms; amborella, nymphaeales, austrobaileyales, chloranthales, magnoliidae, monocotyledonae, ceratophyllum and eudicotyledonae. Angiosperms can also refer to the Divison Anthopyta. Their distinguishing factor comes from it seeds which are enclosed within fruits. There are two main classes: class monoctyledones and class dicotyledones. Angiosperms have roots, stems, leaves, and flowers. They also have alternation of generations. The special thing about angiosperms is their double fertilization.
Phylum Sporozoa is the fifth Phylum form the Protist Kingdom. They are nonmotile as well as considered parasites. Phylum Sporozoa also tends to invade red blood cells at location of replication. It is often associated with the rupture of blood cells. Plasmodium vivax is the best known sporozoan. Sporozoans have no flagellated extensions. However, all Sporozoa have apical complexes which is found in its cellular organization. This complex allows the Sporozoa to invade the host cell. They have complicated life cycles.
Phylum Ciliophora has an abundance of cilia. They are found to have trichocysts structures. It lives in marine environments. It also is known to consume bacteria. It has two nuclei; micronucleus and macronucleus. Paramecium is the best known Cilia. It tends to roll its body when moving forward because of the oral groove found on each side. They are often found in pond water. Paramecium moves due to the minuscule har like structures.
Phylum Sarcodina is a single celled protist that can take shape or form due the flexibility of its membrane. Amoeba is the most known from the Phylum Sarcodina. However, unlike Paramecium, Amoebas move slowly. It functions by stretching out its cytoplasm.It has a two phase life cycle. It is considered t be motile as well as active.
Cells can be eukayortic and prokaryotic too
Each cell specializes in what they do
Although they may be different, they have similar ways
In every boundary of the cell, they have a plasma membrane
Cells have different duties characterized by DNA
It can be found in the nucleoid of a Eukaroyotes, showing the duties of the cell, all the live long day.
In Eukaryotes
DNA are its genetics
while the membranes protect it
Bacteria are considered to be living things. They are small and are found to be with million other cells because they can multiply fast. They are single celled organisms. Their are different bacterial species . Each species has its own characteristics and has certain requirements in order for it to grow. Many bacteria tend to grow in cool places or others in moist areas. Bacteria can often lead to diseases, which is why it is important to cover a open wounded cut, in order to prevent bacteria from seeping in. It is also important in food. Many bacteria have metabolisms that helps in the digestion of sugar but not proteins. Bacteria can also be used to help preserve food as well.
Viruses are infectious and they multiply inside cells of other organisms. Like Bacteria they are very small and can only be seen with light microscopes. They can infect all types of organisms including bacteria. Unlike prions, viruses have genes made from DNA or RNA. They have a protein coat to protect these genes. It is unclear how viruses came to be, however there is speculation that it resulted from plasmids and bacteria. Viruses spread fast. It is often transmitted from interactions. However, unlike Bacteria Viruses depend on their host in order to reproduce. Viruses attack and attach to the host cell by inserting its genetic material.Viruses are non living therefore they can not reproduce on their own, hence the host cell.
Prions have long incubation periods. They are not bacteria or fungi or viruses. It is a protein that appears harmless. Normal prions turn into rogue agents, which influences other normal prions to make the switch as well. It can cause fatal diseases due to the prion proteins. They are transmissible and compose of a modified protein. They cause diseases of the brain and nervous system.
Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration have many attributes that make them similar but also different.
First of all, Cellular Respiration is the process where plants use sunlight, carbon dioxide and water to make food where as cellular respiration is when the food produced, is used to release stored energy. Cellular Respiration aids energy so that it may be transferred from place to place. Aside from helping with the energy process, both processes have electron transport chains. They also allow chemiosmosis to allow ATP synthase to produce ATP. This is where energy produced and released by Photosynthesis and Cellular respiration becomes necessary. Although they are mostly similar in terms of energy, both processes are different in that photosynthesis has two electron transport chains compared to cellular respiration, which has one. The process Photosynthesis also involves carbon dioxide and water vs. Cellular Respiration which uses oxygen and glucose. Another difference has to do with photosynthesis' production of food where as Cellular respiration breaks it down, such as glucose. Photosynthesis requires sunlight and carbon where as Cellular Respiration requires Carbon dioxide. Another similarity is that the processes of cellular respiration and photosynthesis, are both broken down into two processes. However, the difference is that photosynthesis processes are split based on the need of light energy whereas cellular respiration is split on the need of oxygen.
What shape (radius, villi and dimples) and size allow a cell to have the highest rate of diffusion?
The surface area is 30.04. The radius is 1X. The villi is is at 0%. The dimples are set to 5 %. The shape ratio is 10:1. These numbers allows the cell to have the highest rate of diffusion.
